Health Literacy And Its Effect On Health - 1501 Words

Literacy is the ability someone has to read and write. Most of us are taught this skill when we are young. Those of us who learn this during childhood seem to forget this is a privilege not everybody has. The people who do not has this advantage are affected in more ways than we think. Especially when it comes to their health, this understanding is known as health literacy. â€Å"Health literacy is the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process, and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions† (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). One of the major populations affected by their decline in health literacy is the elderly. Some of the factors influencing health literacy include age, reading skills and health beliefs. Inadequate health literacy is associated with increasing health disparities and poor use of health care services which lead to poor health outcomes, unsuccessful self-care and among elderly persons, poor overall health status and high mortality rates. In addition to basic literacy skills, health literacy includes being knowledgeable on health topics. Individuals with inadequate health literacy frequently lack awareness or are misinformed on the human body along with the nature and etiology of disease. Without knowing this they may not comprehend the correlation between lifestyle factors for example, diet and exercise and countless health outcomes. Health literacy is a broad name forShow MoreRelatedHealth Literacy And Its Effects On Hispanic Population With Diabetes1715 Words   |  7 PagesHealth Literacy and its effects on Hispanic Population with Diabetes Background Health Literacy In 2003 The United States Department of Education completed the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) and for the first and only time, so far, it also included items to measure the Health literacy level of adults in the U.S. This assessment intended to measure the capacity of adult individuals to sucessfully comprehend the healthcare system, basic understanding of medical conditions and all knowledgeRead MoreHealth Literacy And Its Effect On Patient Safety Essay1871 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Health literacy is the ability to read, comprehend, and utilize healthcare information in order to make health related decisions based on the individual s interpretation of this information (Eadie, 2014). This includes the individual s ability to perform Internet searches, reading health prevention pamphlets, measuring medication doses, and understanding and complying with verbal or written health care instructions (Eadie, 2014, p. 10). These barriers significantly affect patientRead MoreThe Effects Of Health Literacy And Socioeconomic Status On Older Adult s Ability1462 Words   |  6 PagesHealth care systems these days are very efficient. Everyone accesses the health care system if there is any health related problem. But the extent to which people in society can access health facilities available to them can vary depending on various factors such as health literacy and socioeconomic status. ‘Health literacy represents the cognitive and social skills that determine a perso n’s motivation and ability to gain access to, understand, and use information in ways that promote and maintainRead MoreThe Influence Of Patient Health Literacy On Positive Health Outcomes1274 Words   |  6 PagesInfluence of Patient Health Literacy on Positive Health Outcomes Introduction With an increase in the number of new prescriptions hitting the market and the growing number of patients taking prescription medications, patient health literacy becomes a rising problem. Approximately ninety percent of Americans currently take prescription or over-the-counter medications; however, patients that have an inadequate health literacy level are more likely misinterpret or suffer adverse drug effects due to a lackRead MoreLack Of Low Health Literacy1098 Words   |  5 Pages 1. Statement of the Problem Inadequate health literacy has been known to be associated with poorer health outcomes and disparity of using certain health care services including increased rate of hospitalization and emergency care.1, 2 Recognizing patients with low health literacy is important in order to reduce the adverse effects of health literacy has on health outcomes.2 Several instruments have been developed to assess level of health literacy both based on word recognition and reading comprehensionRead MoreHealth Literacy Is Defined As The â€Å"The Capacity To Obtain,1229 Words   |  5 PagesHealth literacy is defined as the â€Å"the capacity to obtain, communicate, process, and understand basic health information and services to make appropriate health decisions† (Koh et al., 2012, p. 1). When a patient has poor health literacy, they are more likely to have a poor outcome in regards to their health. There are bills and initiatives that address the need for patients to increase their health lit eracy as well as the healthcare providers’ responsibilities to provide the information in a wayRead MoreHealth Literacy Impact On National Healthcare Utilization1746 Words   |  7 PagesHealth Literacy Impact on National Healthcare Utilization Background: Health literacy presents a huge challenge in the delivery of effective healthcare and quality outcomes. We evaluated association between low health literacy and healthcare utilization. Methods: Database analysis utilized Medical Expenditure Panel Survey(MEPS) from 2005-2008 which provides national representative estimates of healthcare utilization and expeniture. Health literacy scores were calculated based on a validated predictiveRead MoreCommunication of Proper Health Essay1005 Words   |  5 PagesThis is because in the medical field there is certain health literacy, meaning, unless our a health care professional, who’s undergone years of studying this literacy, its going to be rather hard to comprehend why you found yourself talking to a doctor in the first place. This health literacy helps doctors and professionals in the medical field communicate with each other efficiently and accurately. As a pre-med major, figuring out this literacy is what will change me from an undergrad to a professionalRead MoreCommunication Is Most Vital For The Health Status Of Public855 Words   |  4 PagesCommunication is most crucial in promoting and protecting the he alth status of people. Also, it has a crucial role in providing culturally competent care to the people of various ethnic and racial minorities. Without communication it is not only impossible to assess, diagnose, provide health services and education to the consumers but also difficult to utilize the evidence- based research into practice, which has negative effects on the health status of public. Speaker note: diversity of population hasRead MoreHealth Literacy And Effective Communication1229 Words   |  5 Pagesgroups than non-indigenous population, low level of health literacy has been considered as negative factor that impacting on the delivery of effective care and health professionals’ performances on medical treatment. With integrated health literacy program, culturally competent and appropriate communication at individual, systemic and organisational level would enhance health outcomes for consumer’s welfare. Most importantly, improved health literacy and effective communication skills would plays an

Essay Malcom X/Nation of Islam - 1489 Words

The Nation of Islam was founded during the Great Depression in Detroit, Michigan by a silk merchant named Wallace D. Fard. He began preaching to the black community that they didn’t deserve to live in poverty, and that the white people exploited the people so much that Fard believed that this community needed their own state. Fard accumulated more than 8,000 followers who believed that Fard was actually god, in the form of man. Elijah Poole, later known as Elijah Muhammad, took over the Nation of Islam after Fard’s disappearance in 1934. One Nation of Islam follower widely known for his work was Malcolm X. Malcolm X was born on May 19, 1925 under the name Malcolm Little, the fourth child of Rev. Earl and Louise Little. Malcolm’s father†¦show more content†¦(Frost 2001) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;In 1952, Malcolm Little was released form prison and changed his name to Malcolm X. on the belief of Elijah Muhammad that black people should give up their ‘slave names’. A year later, that Black Muslims named Malcolm X that assistant minister at a Nation of Islam temple in Detroit, where he worked his way up the totem pole. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;By 1954 Malcolm X was sent to preach in Harlem, New York City, the nation’s largest black community. There he preached, and soon the poor black people flocked him to hear what he had to say. They figured he was a man who knew the knowledge of their mean streets firsthand. They listened because Malcolm X was angry, just as the people of Harlem were. Malcolms personal commitment helped build the organization nation-wide, while making him an international figure. He was interviewed on major television programs and by magazines, and spoke across the country at various universities and other forums. (Frost 2001) nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;With Black Muslim ideas as a foundation, Malcolm X would preach with great fury of the condition of blacks in America, and how the white people were held responsible. He would speak for hours on end of what he thought of the empty promises of integration and Christianity, and that the blacks need to get enraged, feel pride in theirShow MoreRelatedThe Autobiography Of Malcolm X1701 Words   |  7 Pagesautobiography of Malcolm X. Malcolm X was one of the most controversial Men in American history. I’m familar with the name Malcolm X however, I’m not familliar with the works and background of Malcolm X. This is why I choose to read the autobiography of Malcolm X written by himself and Alex Haley. Which gives the read an insight on his background, beliefs, and the American society then. I believe that many people including myself have misunderstood Malcolm X. I believe that Malcolm X is misunderstood dueRead MoreMalcolm X : An Extraordinary Figure For African Americans1647 Words   |  7 Pages Malcolm X is an extraordinary figure for African Americans. He is one of the most historic and significant human beings in American history. Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska. His mother, Louise Little, was 28 years young and his father Earl Little was an outspoken Baptist minister and supporter of Marcus Garvey s â€Å"Back to Africa Movement†. Malcom had 3 half siblings from his father’s previous marriage and later 6 additional kids. His push for Civil Right made him a targetRead MoreMalcom X : An African American Minister And An Activist Of Human Rights Essay1404 Words   |  6 PagesMalcom X also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, was an African-American minister and an activist of human rights. He was born in May, 19, 1925 in North Omaha, Nebraska, US and was assassinated (multiple gunshots) in February, 21, 1965. He was born in a family of eight, his father Earl Little was a Baptist minister and a supporter of Marcus Gaverys, and a local leader of Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) induced self-reliance and black pride in his children. His mother Louise NortonRead MoreComparison of Martin Luther King, Jr and Malcom X1700 Words   |  7 PagesThey were black men who had a dream, but never lived to see it fulfilled. One was a man who spoke out to all humanity, but the world was not yet ready for his peaceful words. I have a dream, a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed... that all men are created equal. (Martin Luther King) The other, a man who spoke of a violent revolution, which would bring about radical change for the black race. Anything you can think of that you want to change rightRead MoreThe Ballot Or The Bullet By Malcolm X1222 Words   |  5 PagesIn 1964 Malcolm X delivered a speech titled ‘The Ballot or the Bullet† aimed to reach the poor black people of America. Born May 19, 1925 one of nine children, to a Baptist preacher whose was hit by a street car, and whose death was said to have possibly been a murder by white people, Malcom X was raised by his mother until she was institutionalized. After being put in foster care, and having issues in school, Malcom dropped out of school and became a troubled teen. A drug dealer, street hustlerRead MoreI Have A Dream By Martin Luther King876 Words   |  4 Pagesbathroom together, sit together, and live together. Everything will be peaceful for every citizen of America. While Malcom X was in the Nation of Islam he gave out a speech and answered questions, especially about President John Kennedy’s death. Malcom X was a muslim and he had strong views about religion. Throughout his speech he provides many religious views and ideologies. Malcom X described how punishment will come to White America. In the past, many empires have fell because of their oppressiveRead MoreMalcolm X And The Black Panthers1352 Words   |  6 PagesMalcolm X and the Black Panthers both the profoundly affected the goals of the civil right movement. Malcolm X was born on May 19th, 1925 in Omaha Nebraska. Earl Little, (Malcolm’s father) was an outspoken Baptist minister and an avid supporter of the Black Nationalist leader Marcus Garvey. Malcom graduated at the top of his class however when a teacher told him that his dream of becoming a lawyer was â€Å"no realistic goal for a nigger† (Genius, 2016), these words greatly impacted him and caused himRead M oreBible Versus the Toran12356 Words   |  50 PagesPAGE 19 V. THE QURAN PAGE 20 - 23 VI. THE BIBLE COMPARED TO QURAN PAGE 24-28 VII. FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM COMPARED TO THE TEN PAGE 29-34 COMMANDMENTS VIII. COMPARING THE LIFE OF TWO AFRO-AMERICANS (1) MALCOM X - ISLAMIC MUSLIM/QURAN PAGE 35-43 8 (2) MARTIN LUTHER KING JR. - CHRISTIAN/BIBLE PAGE 44-48 9 (3) BOTH MENSRead MoreThe Greatest Scandal Of The Boxing World886 Words   |  4 Pageschampionship in 1964, Cassius Clay changed his named to Cassius X and publically announced that he was a member of the Nation of Islam. However, only 10 days later, Elijah Muhammad saw a chance to promote the religion further and bestowed him the name, Muhammad Ali. This was very controversial, may many reasons. One, members of the Nation of Islam were not to be given to Arabic names until the return of their founder, Master Wallace Ford. Even Malcom X, and influential man and promoter of equality for blackRead MoreBlack Lives Matter : A Movement Toward Systematic Equality2441 Words   |  10 Pagessystematically, African Americans are still experiencing injustice by the government and racism is still alive, it’s just underground. After a bounty of the unjustified murder of unarmed African American men, the Black Lives Matter Movement was created. A Malcom X quote that resonate s in the hearts of those affected, â€Å"a man who stands for nothing will fall for anything† because up until this movement was created, all the African American population could do is stand idly by and witness the numerous incidences

Enterococcus Free Essays

Enterococcus By Richard Guilford Enterococcus Enterococcus, or more appropriately enterococci, are a family of bacteria in the division firmicutes (meaning strong skin and referring to the cell wall) and the class bacilli (which refers to its rod like shape). They look just like streptococcus bacteria from physical characteristics alone. In fact, members of the genus Enterococcus were classified as Group D Streptococcus until 1984 when genomic DNA analysis showed that a separate genus classification would be appropriate. We will write a custom essay sample on Enterococcus or any similar topic only for you Order Now Enterococci are part of the normal intestinal flora (good bacteria) of humans and animals but are also important pathogens responsible for serious infections. They are considered gram-positive, meaning they stain dark blue or violet. They also mostly occur in pairs or short chains. Enterococci are facultative anaerobic organisms, meaning they can thrive in both oxygen rich and oxygen poor environments. They do not form spores as many bacteria do, meaning they do not have a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and survival for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Nevertheless, they are tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions: such as extreme temperature (10-45 °C), pH (4. 5-10. 0) and high sodium chloride concentration. In bodies of water, the acceptable level of contamination is very low, for example in the state of Hawaii, with among the strictest tolerances in the United States, the limit for water off its beaches is 7 colony-forming units per 100 ml of water. Anything above that, the state may post warnings to stay out of the ocean. In 2004, Enterococcus spp. took the place of fecal coliform as the new federal standard for water quality at public beaches. It is believed to provide a higher correlation than fecal coliform with many of the human pathogens often found in city sewage (eww right? ). There are many strains of enterococcus. Important clinical infections caused by Enterococcus include urinary tract infections, bacteremia, bacterial endocarditis, diverticulitis, and meningitis. Sensitive strains of these bacteria can be treated with ampicillin and vancomycin, two well known and often used antibiotics. An important feature of enterococcus is the high level of intrinsic antibiotic resistance, meaning its inherent ability to ithstand some of the more common antibiotics. Some enterococci are intrinsically resistant to beta-lactam-based antibiotics (those include some penicillins and virtually all cephalosporins) as well as many aminoglycosides (an amino-sugar that can sometimes function as an antibiotic). In the last two decades, particularly virulent strains of enterococcus that are resistant to vancomycin (vancomycin-resistant E nterococcus, or VRE) have emerged in nosocomial (infections caught in hospitals while care is being given) infections of hospitalized patients especially in the US. Other developed countries such as the UK have been spared this epidemic, and, in 2005, Singapore managed to halt an epidemic of VRE. VRE may be treated with quinupristin/dalfopristin (a special antibiotic developed to fight VRE) or Synercid with response rates of approximately 70%. Enterococcus avium is a species that is most commonly found in birds. Rarely, it is also a cause of infection in humans, and in such cases, may be vancomycin-reistant. It is referred to as VREA. VREA cases in humans have been successfully treated with linezolid (a synthetic antibiotic). Enterococcus durans and enterococcus faecalis are very similar. They are often mistaken for one another in determining infections. They inhabit the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other mammals. It is among the main parts of some probiotic food supplements. Like other species in the genus enterococcus, E. faecalis can cause life-threatening infections in humans, especially in the nosocomial environment. The naturally high levels of antibiotic resistance found in E. faecalis contribute to its ability to infect. E. faecalis has been frequently found in root canal-treated teeth in prevalence values ranging from 30% to 90% of the cases. Root canal-treated teeth are about nine times more likely to have E. faecalis than cases of primary infections. Enterococcus faecium is an alpha hemolitic or nonhemolitic, bacterium. It is used as a probiotic in animals. It can be commensal (a harmlessly coexisting organism) in the human intestine, but it may also be pathogenic, causing diseases such as neonatal meningitis. Enterococcal meningitis is also a rare complication of neurosurgery. It often requires treatment with IV or intrathecal (something introduced into or occurring in the space under the arachnoid membrane of the brain or spinal cord) vancomycin, yet it is uncertain whether its use has any impact on outcome. The removal of any neurological devices is an important part of the management of these infections. Enterococcus solitarius and Enterococcus gallinarum are two more species of enterococcus. The genus Enterococcus includes more than 17 species, but only a few cause clinical infections in humans. Infection control programs were created three decades ago to control antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infections, but there has been little evidence of control in most facilities. After long, steady increases of MRSA and VRE infections in hospitals, the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) Board of Directors made reducing antibiotic-resistant infections a strategic SHEA goal in January 2000. After 2 more years without improvement, a SHEA task force was appointed to draft an evidence-based guideline on preventing nosocomial transmission of pathogens, focusing on the two considered most out of control: MRSA and VRE. Medline searches were conducted spanning 1966 to 2002. Many interpretations of unpublished studies providing sufficient data were included. Frequent antibiotics in healthcare settings provided a small advantage for resistant strands, but patients with MRSA or VRE usually acquire it through spread. The CDC has long-recommended contact precautions for patients colonized or infected with these pathogens. Most facilities have required this as policy, but have not actively identified infected patients with surveillance cultures (lab tests performed to determine possible abnormalities or infection) and tests, leaving most infected patients undetected and not isolated. Many studies have shown control of endemic (exclusively native to a place) and/or epidemic (everywhere) MRSA and VRE infections using surveillance cultures and contact precautions. Active surveillance cultures are essential to identify the infected to prevent spread of MRSA and VRE infections and make control possible using the CDC’s long-recommended contact precautions. Testing for enterococci can be tricky. Enterococci have been recognized to be of fecal origin since the beginning of this century. The usual ecological home for the Enterococcus species is the intestines of humans and other animals. However, enterococci are ubiquitous (present everywhere) and can be found free-living in soil, on plants, or in dairy products. Enterococcus comprises gram-positive cocci that are catalase (a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms that are exposed to oxygen, where it functions to catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen) negative, usually facultative anaerobic acteria. There is clear evidence of the genotypic (concerning the genetic makeup) identity of Enterococcus, based on molecular studies. Enterococci have also been related to human diseases, becoming established as major nosocomial pathogens. The isolation of strains resistant to many antibiotics has become important in public health concerns. In addition, Enter ococcus and Streptococcus have been proposed as indicators of fecal contamination in water because of their high abundance in feces and their long survival in the environment. Although the ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococci has been ruled out as an indicator, the identi? cation of species associated with a given environment or host might provide additional information about the origin and the source of fecal contamination. The ability of enterococci to grow under particular conditions is widely used in their selective identification. This characteristic allows the detection and enumeration of enterococci with a selective medium (template used to grow bacteria) M-enterococcus agar or KF streptococcus agar, and by using bile-esculin-azide agar (another medium) as a further test for con? mation. Although this approach can distinguish Enterococci from other bacterial species, some may be identi? ed wrongly. The use of these media can hurt either selectivity (choices of bacteria found) or productivity (ability for bacteria to grow). Even though this approach was to identify enterococci species, it is unsuitable for the detection of certain enterococ ci species because they do not grow on these media. In addition, other bacterial species such as Streptococcus are able to grow on the media, presenting results similar to those of Enterococci. Enterococci are diverse and enigmatic. There are many strains and many complications that can arise from them. They are both harmless and deadly, useful and destructive. They can be used to aid digestion, or feared in a hospital setting. They are indeed a medical paradox. With continued study, we hope to learn from and understand these bacteria if not to aid us in our expansion of knowledge, then to rid us of a potentially critical threat in our hospital settings. Gilmore MS, (2002). The Enterococci: Pathogenesis, Molecular Biology, and Antibiotic Resistance. Fisher K, Phillips C (June 2009). â€Å"The ecology, epidemiology and virulence of Enterococcus†. Jin G, Jeng HW, Bradford H, Englande AJ (2004). â€Å"Comparison of E. coli, enterococci, and fecal coliform as indicators for brackish water quality assessment†. Carlene A. Muto, MD, MS; John A. Jernigan, MD, MS; Belinda E. Ostrowsky, MD, MPH; Herve M. Richet, MD; William R. Jarvis, MD; John M. Boyce, MD; Barry M. Farr, MD, MSc (May 2003). â€Å"SHEA Guideline for Preventing Nosocomial Transmission of Multidrug-Resistant Strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus† How to cite Enterococcus, Papers

Enterococcus Free Essays

Enterococcus By Richard Guilford Enterococcus Enterococcus, or more appropriately enterococci, are a family of bacteria in the division firmicutes (meaning strong skin and referring to the cell wall) and the class bacilli (which refers to its rod like shape). They look just like streptococcus bacteria from physical characteristics alone. In fact, members of the genus Enterococcus were classified as Group D Streptococcus until 1984 when genomic DNA analysis showed that a separate genus classification would be appropriate. We will write a custom essay sample on Enterococcus or any similar topic only for you Order Now Enterococci are part of the normal intestinal flora (good bacteria) of humans and animals but are also important pathogens responsible for serious infections. They are considered gram-positive, meaning they stain dark blue or violet. They also mostly occur in pairs or short chains. Enterococci are facultative anaerobic organisms, meaning they can thrive in both oxygen rich and oxygen poor environments. They do not form spores as many bacteria do, meaning they do not have a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and survival for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Nevertheless, they are tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions: such as extreme temperature (10-45 °C), pH (4. 5-10. 0) and high sodium chloride concentration. In bodies of water, the acceptable level of contamination is very low, for example in the state of Hawaii, with among the strictest tolerances in the United States, the limit for water off its beaches is 7 colony-forming units per 100 ml of water. Anything above that, the state may post warnings to stay out of the ocean. In 2004, Enterococcus spp. took the place of fecal coliform as the new federal standard for water quality at public beaches. It is believed to provide a higher correlation than fecal coliform with many of the human pathogens often found in city sewage (eww right? ). There are many strains of enterococcus. Important clinical infections caused by Enterococcus include urinary tract infections, bacteremia, bacterial endocarditis, diverticulitis, and meningitis. Sensitive strains of these bacteria can be treated with ampicillin and vancomycin, two well known and often used antibiotics. An important feature of enterococcus is the high level of intrinsic antibiotic resistance, meaning its inherent ability to ithstand some of the more common antibiotics. Some enterococci are intrinsically resistant to beta-lactam-based antibiotics (those include some penicillins and virtually all cephalosporins) as well as many aminoglycosides (an amino-sugar that can sometimes function as an antibiotic). In the last two decades, particularly virulent strains of enterococcus that are resistant to vancomycin (vancomycin-resistant E nterococcus, or VRE) have emerged in nosocomial (infections caught in hospitals while care is being given) infections of hospitalized patients especially in the US. Other developed countries such as the UK have been spared this epidemic, and, in 2005, Singapore managed to halt an epidemic of VRE. VRE may be treated with quinupristin/dalfopristin (a special antibiotic developed to fight VRE) or Synercid with response rates of approximately 70%. Enterococcus avium is a species that is most commonly found in birds. Rarely, it is also a cause of infection in humans, and in such cases, may be vancomycin-reistant. It is referred to as VREA. VREA cases in humans have been successfully treated with linezolid (a synthetic antibiotic). Enterococcus durans and enterococcus faecalis are very similar. They are often mistaken for one another in determining infections. They inhabit the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other mammals. It is among the main parts of some probiotic food supplements. Like other species in the genus enterococcus, E. faecalis can cause life-threatening infections in humans, especially in the nosocomial environment. The naturally high levels of antibiotic resistance found in E. faecalis contribute to its ability to infect. E. faecalis has been frequently found in root canal-treated teeth in prevalence values ranging from 30% to 90% of the cases. Root canal-treated teeth are about nine times more likely to have E. faecalis than cases of primary infections. Enterococcus faecium is an alpha hemolitic or nonhemolitic, bacterium. It is used as a probiotic in animals. It can be commensal (a harmlessly coexisting organism) in the human intestine, but it may also be pathogenic, causing diseases such as neonatal meningitis. Enterococcal meningitis is also a rare complication of neurosurgery. It often requires treatment with IV or intrathecal (something introduced into or occurring in the space under the arachnoid membrane of the brain or spinal cord) vancomycin, yet it is uncertain whether its use has any impact on outcome. The removal of any neurological devices is an important part of the management of these infections. Enterococcus solitarius and Enterococcus gallinarum are two more species of enterococcus. The genus Enterococcus includes more than 17 species, but only a few cause clinical infections in humans. Infection control programs were created three decades ago to control antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infections, but there has been little evidence of control in most facilities. After long, steady increases of MRSA and VRE infections in hospitals, the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) Board of Directors made reducing antibiotic-resistant infections a strategic SHEA goal in January 2000. After 2 more years without improvement, a SHEA task force was appointed to draft an evidence-based guideline on preventing nosocomial transmission of pathogens, focusing on the two considered most out of control: MRSA and VRE. Medline searches were conducted spanning 1966 to 2002. Many interpretations of unpublished studies providing sufficient data were included. Frequent antibiotics in healthcare settings provided a small advantage for resistant strands, but patients with MRSA or VRE usually acquire it through spread. The CDC has long-recommended contact precautions for patients colonized or infected with these pathogens. Most facilities have required this as policy, but have not actively identified infected patients with surveillance cultures (lab tests performed to determine possible abnormalities or infection) and tests, leaving most infected patients undetected and not isolated. Many studies have shown control of endemic (exclusively native to a place) and/or epidemic (everywhere) MRSA and VRE infections using surveillance cultures and contact precautions. Active surveillance cultures are essential to identify the infected to prevent spread of MRSA and VRE infections and make control possible using the CDC’s long-recommended contact precautions. Testing for enterococci can be tricky. Enterococci have been recognized to be of fecal origin since the beginning of this century. The usual ecological home for the Enterococcus species is the intestines of humans and other animals. However, enterococci are ubiquitous (present everywhere) and can be found free-living in soil, on plants, or in dairy products. Enterococcus comprises gram-positive cocci that are catalase (a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms that are exposed to oxygen, where it functions to catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen) negative, usually facultative anaerobic acteria. There is clear evidence of the genotypic (concerning the genetic makeup) identity of Enterococcus, based on molecular studies. Enterococci have also been related to human diseases, becoming established as major nosocomial pathogens. The isolation of strains resistant to many antibiotics has become important in public health concerns. In addition, Enter ococcus and Streptococcus have been proposed as indicators of fecal contamination in water because of their high abundance in feces and their long survival in the environment. Although the ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococci has been ruled out as an indicator, the identi? cation of species associated with a given environment or host might provide additional information about the origin and the source of fecal contamination. The ability of enterococci to grow under particular conditions is widely used in their selective identification. This characteristic allows the detection and enumeration of enterococci with a selective medium (template used to grow bacteria) M-enterococcus agar or KF streptococcus agar, and by using bile-esculin-azide agar (another medium) as a further test for con? mation. Although this approach can distinguish Enterococci from other bacterial species, some may be identi? ed wrongly. The use of these media can hurt either selectivity (choices of bacteria found) or productivity (ability for bacteria to grow). Even though this approach was to identify enterococci species, it is unsuitable for the detection of certain enterococ ci species because they do not grow on these media. In addition, other bacterial species such as Streptococcus are able to grow on the media, presenting results similar to those of Enterococci. Enterococci are diverse and enigmatic. There are many strains and many complications that can arise from them. They are both harmless and deadly, useful and destructive. They can be used to aid digestion, or feared in a hospital setting. They are indeed a medical paradox. With continued study, we hope to learn from and understand these bacteria if not to aid us in our expansion of knowledge, then to rid us of a potentially critical threat in our hospital settings. Gilmore MS, (2002). The Enterococci: Pathogenesis, Molecular Biology, and Antibiotic Resistance. Fisher K, Phillips C (June 2009). â€Å"The ecology, epidemiology and virulence of Enterococcus†. Jin G, Jeng HW, Bradford H, Englande AJ (2004). â€Å"Comparison of E. coli, enterococci, and fecal coliform as indicators for brackish water quality assessment†. Carlene A. Muto, MD, MS; John A. Jernigan, MD, MS; Belinda E. Ostrowsky, MD, MPH; Herve M. Richet, MD; William R. Jarvis, MD; John M. Boyce, MD; Barry M. Farr, MD, MSc (May 2003). â€Å"SHEA Guideline for Preventing Nosocomial Transmission of Multidrug-Resistant Strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus† How to cite Enterococcus, Papers

Positive Accounting Theory and Natural Science

Question: Discuss about the Positive Accounting Theory and Natural Science. Answer: Introduction The research article Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research is based on analysing and examining the progress made in the field of managerial accounting research. The article has reviewed many of the current published literature about the usefulness of theoretical models for successfully completing the accounting research (Dunmore, 2009). In this context, the research paper has evaluated the contribution of positive accounting theory in achieving the scientific objectives of accounting research. The research paper has addressed the incorporation of other theories other than positive accounting for the purpose of attaining objectives of accounting research. The author in the article has proposed that positive research program is useful mainly for achieving theoretical objectives of accounting but is not efficient for attaining practical outcomes. The main argument proposed by the author through the research article is whether positive accounting research is useful for attaining practical objectives of accounting research or not. The research article has discussed in detail about both the importance and deficiencies of positive accounting theory to accounting research. The present essay aims to present a critical analysis of the research article through summarising its main points, identifying the research question, discussing its theoretical framework, describing the significance and limitations of the research article. Summary of the Article The research article has emphasised on the importance of adopting other theoretical approaches in accounting research besides positive accounting research. The concept of positive accounting research is defined as the concept of accounting that aims to explain the accounting practices selectee by the businesses for implementation. The theory is largely used by the accountants for predicting the real world situations and thus providing recommendation to them about the decisions to be taken. The theory mainly helps to predict the actions that the business organisations should take for maximising their financial performance. However, the theory is mainly criticised for its societal approach rather than emphasising on practical usefulness. Thus, it is largely ineffective in attaining the scientific objectives of a research. Thus, the author in the article has emphasised on the integration of other approaches to accounting in addition to positive accounting theory for achieving the scient ific objectives of accounting research. The author has stated that scientific researches involve collection of data and as such positive approach to accounting does not seem to be useful for scientific accounting research (Rhonheimer, 2000). Positive accounting research particularly aims to provide an understanding of the human behaviour through explaining the cause and effect relationships. The accounting research need to implement more practical approach for achieving its objectives rather than adopting the theoretical concepts of positive accounting theory (Chatfield and Vangermeersch, 2014). The article has concluded that economic based theory has been developed for guiding the managerial accounting research. This is mainly due to the lack of reliable and consistent practical data as accounting research mainly involves the collection of practical data. Thus, it has been summarised from the research article that recent practices used in accounting research does not adequately meet the requirement of quantitative accounting research. There is high need for better and improved theoretical models to be used by the accountants for developing the accounting policies used by business organisations. This will help the busine sses to improve their financial performance by selecting an appropriate accounting policy (Ghnabari et al., 2016). Research Question The main research question of the research article can be stated as What are the main deficiencies in the positive accounting theory that restricts it from attaining the objectives of managerial accounting research? The research question has developed from the literature review as the theoretical framework of the article has emphasised on the strengths and weakness of positive accounting research to the field of accounting. The literature review has analysed the contribution of positive accounting research in the field of accounting. The use of better approaches in the accounting research as compared to the positive accounting theory is suggested in the overall literature of the research article. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework of the research article emphasises on the theoretical model of Positive Accounting Theory (PAT) used in accounting research. As discussed in the theoretical framework, positive accounting research is regarded as a major theoretical framework in the accounting research that impacts the managerial choices about the type of accounting policies to be used by the business organisations. The theory of PAT (positive accounting theory) has largely been regarded as one of the most effective theory that helps in determining the management decision about the financial reporting. However, the theory is criticised recently as it is regarded as inappropriate for studying social science phenomena. The discussion revolves about the fact that material models of science such as positive accounting theory are not appropriate for analysing human behaviour. It is essential to interpret the observed behaviour on the basis of mental aspects. The theory is regarded as one of the mo st effective theory in the field of accounting research for predicting the accounting practices. However, due to various shortcomings identified in the theory there is need for the use of better theoretical models to be used for accounting research (Deegan, 2014). The theoretical framework of the research article is well-organised into different sections for providing an in-depth understanding about the research topic. The research question itself flows from the theoretical framework of the research article. It has undertaken several aspects regarding the research topic in a well defined manner. The theoretical framework of the research article has highlighted that positive accounting theory though used largely in managerial accounting research but the disappointing progress made in this area is a direct result of the using ad hic quantitative models. There is need to adopt the use of more elaborate models in the field of accounting research in order to test the relationship between two variables. The author has reviewed many literary sources in the theoretical framework for discussing about the various weaknesses of the positive accounting theory. The present theoretical models used in accounting research such as positive accounting theory is mainly based on theoretical approach. However, there is need for the use of more field-based research in accounting filed to attain its scientific objectives (Ghnabari et al., 2016). There is need for conducting more practical and less theoretical research in the field of accounting for developing a proper understanding of its various concepts. The reliance of accounting researches more on theoretical models as compared to the practical can be cited as on the major reason for the disappointing progress made in this field. The theoretical framework suggest that empirical accounting research should incorporate the use of more empirically testable theories that can help in predicting the human behaviour in accounting settings with practical outcomes. The underlying theory used by accountants at the time of decision-making in organisations should be based on testable predictions rather than theoretical approach. The researches should use economic-based hypothesis and adopt practice-oriented research for achieving its various objectives. The various concepts of the theories should be tested hypothetically for obtaining their practical evidence to be used in the empiri cal accounting research (Dunmore, 2009). The research paper has also discussed the development of positive accounting theory in relation to the new approach of Popper. The poppers criteria stated that researches involve collection of data for testing the theoretical concepts by developing hypothesis. The theories neither should nor be merely accepted on the basis of its past evaluation but should be statistically tested before its implementation in the accounting researches. The procedure of testing the concepts of heretical models used in accounting as described by Pooper is observing carefully for extracting the main ideas from the theories. The next step is testing the predictions obtained from the theory. The predictions obtained should be mainly quantitative in nature as qualitative predictions generally provide false results. The results obtained from previous theories should be compared with those obtained from new theories before adopting them to guide the empirical managerial accounting research. Thus, the theoreti cal framework of the research article has highlighted the shortcomings in present theoretical model used in accounting research. It has highlighted the need of better theoretical models in accounting field that can are more practical-oriented rather than having theoretical approach (Dunmore, 2009). Significance and Limitations of the Article The research article is highly significant for developing an understanding of the various weaknesses that exit in positive accounting theory. The researches in accounting are largely guided by the concepts of positive accounting theory and therefore it is highly essential that accountants must improve the identified deficiencies in the theory. Positive accounting should be used in combination with other practice-oriented theoretical models for attaining the scientific objectives of the accounting researches. However, the main limitation as identified from the literature of the research article is its reliance on qualitative data. The author has mainly reviewed secondary literary sources for analysing the research topic and has not incorporated the use of quantitative data. The research methodology used by the author for attaining the objectives of the research is mainly qualitative in nature. This makes the research study more subjective in nature and therefore it lacks objectivity ( Dunmore, 2009). The author should have incorporated the use of quantitative data for hypothetical testing of various concepts of positive accounting theory to provide practical outcomes before the readers. This might have demonstrated solid evidence in front of the readers about the various deficiencies in the positive accounting theory. The discussion held in the research paper is mainly supported by qualitative data and does not have nay practical evidence. The theoretical conclusions drawn by the author are also not justified by the research methodology. The research methodology is purely qualitative in nature and the conclusion drawn by the author is mainly quantitative in nature. The theoretical conclusions drawn by the author need to be supported by the qualitative data for justifying them. All these limitations of the research article have impacted its significance to a large extent (Chatfield and Vangermeersch, 2014). This has negatively impacted the credibility of the research article to be used in future researches in the field of accounting. There is no support of theoretical conclusions by the quantitative data and this has made the research purely subjective. There is need of objectivity in the research for making its conclusions to be reliable and accurate in order to be used in quantitative accounting researches. The present research has a worthwhile contribution to offer in the future researches held in this context with its theoretical conclusions. The lack of quantitative data has impacted its credibility but the research article has highlighted the major problems encountered in the field of managerial accounting. It has provided a focused analysis of the management accounting researches held in the recent years. The researchers can develop an in-depth understanding of the management accounting research through the theoretical framework of the present research article (Dunmore, 2009). Conclusion The present research article as reviewed the recent literatures in the field of accounting research to analyse the contribution of positive accounting theory in this field. The author through the use of various literary sources in the article has argued to incorporate the use of better and improve theoretical models in the accounting researches. This is mainly due to the fact that current theoretical models used in accounting researches such as positive accounting theory lacks practical orientation. There is need for theoretical models that are based on testable predictions rather than having theoretical concepts. This will help the researchers to attain scientific objectives of the accounting research more easily. The author has suggested the use of positive accounting theory in addition with other practice-oriented theoretical models for conducting managerial accounting researches. References Chatfield, M. and Vangermeersch, R. 2014. The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encylopedia. Routledge. Deegan, C. 2014. Financial Accounting Theory. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. Dunmore, P.V. 2009. Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research. Ghnabari, M. et al. 2016. PAT (Positive Accounting Theory) and Natural Science. International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences 10(2), pp. 177-182. Rhonheimer, M. 2000. Natural Law and Practical Reason: A Thomist View of Moral Autonomy. Fordham Univ Press.